Their study had no theoretical framework if one were to use the restrictive conception that a theory needed to provide a guiding framework for the investigation. Rather, their inductive study simply compared 40 teachers вЂњknownвЂќ to be effective and ineffective of mathematics and reading to derive differences in classroom practice. Similarly, the seminal study of effective teaching, the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study (Tikunoff, Berliner, & Rist, 1975), was an ethnographic study that was not guided by the findings of previous research on effective teaching. Indeed, the design of the studies was derived from the fact that there were no existing theories, general or specific, to explain how students might learn nature of science more effectively. The studies were descriptive and correlational and were not driven by any theory about how students learn nature of science. In these initial studies, various classroom variables were identified that were related to studentsвЂ™ improved understandings of nature of science. If some of the initial research completed by Norman concerning what classroom variables contributed to studentsвЂ™ understandings of nature of science (Lederman, 1986a, 1986b Lederman & Druger, 1985) had to align with the overly restricted definition of a theoretical framework, which necessitates the presence of theory, it never would have been published. Note that the doctoral student is now ready to write down a specific research question and that this is only possible after having conducted a thorough review of the literature. At this point, the student has narrowed his/her interests as a result of reviewing the literature. This latter question, in effect, has addressed the second question previously posed about the identification of a theoretical framework. That is, could it be possible that students of different cognitive levels are affected differently by questions at different cognitive levels? If so, an answer to the problem concerning the effectiveness questioning may be at hand. The research on the cognitive development of students has provided an intriguing perspective. That is, does the cognitive level of questioning have any effect on student achievement? In effect, this answers the first question identified previously with respect to identification of a theoretical framework.

The research on the effectiveness of questioning has established that there is a problem. So, what is a theoretical framework?ДЄt this point, the doctoral student has become quite familiar with two distinct lines of educational research. The discussion here is focused on theoretical frameworks at a much more specific and localized perspective with respect to the justification and conceptualization of a single research investigation. Clearly quantitative research paradigms are couched in a realist perspective and qualitative research paradigms are couched in an idealist perspective (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982). The argument here is not that various research paradigms have no overarching philosophies or theories about knowing. Additionally, a large proportion of doctoral theses do not fit the narrow definition described. However, this narrow definition of a theoretical framework is commonly not aligned with qualitative research paradigms that are attempting to develop theory, for example, grounded theory, or research falling into the categories of description and interpretation research (Peshkin, 1993). This is especially true for theory driven research (typically quantitative) that is attempting to test the validity of existing theory.

The search is often unsuccessful because of the studentвЂ™s misconception of what constitutes a вЂњtheoretical framework.вЂќ The framework may actually be a theory, but not necessarily. Doctoral students live in fear of hearing these now famous words from their thesis advisor: вЂњThis sounds like a promising study, but what is your theoretical framework?вЂќ These words instantly send the harried doctoral student to the library (giving away our ages) in search of a theory to support the proposed research and to satisfy his/her advisor.

Examples of theoretical framework